Ballistic Missiles: The Mechanics and Implications of High-Powered Projectiles in Modern Warfare

A ballistic missile is a high-powered projectile engineered to launch a warhead over vast distances towards a predetermined target. These missiles follow suborbital paths, reaching spaceborne heights (100 km+) and exiting Earth's atmosphere, with intercontinental ballistic missiles soaring up to 1,200 km above the surface. The term "ballistic" is used as the trajectory, after the initial boost phase, is primarily determined by ballistics, forming a smooth parabolic curve.

Ballistic missiles are available in various shapes and sizes. In the United States, they are categorized into four range classes:

- Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM): over 5,500 kilometers

- Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM): 3,000 to 5,500 kilometers

- Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM): 1,000 to 3,000 kilometers

- Short-Range Ballistic Missile (SRBM): up to 1,000 kilometers

For distances below 350 kilometers, the ballistic missile remains within Earth's atmosphere. It is worth noting that the only three ballistic missiles ever employed in combat were short-range and carried conventional explosives. Although most ballistic missiles today are designed to transport nuclear warheads, none have been utilized in warfare thus far.

Ballistic missiles utilize either solid or liquid fuels. Earlier models, such as Nazi Germany's V2 rocket during World War II and the United States' first ballistic missiles, employed liquid fuel. Liquid-propellant ballistic missiles often use liquid hydrogen as fuel and liquid oxygen as the oxidizer, both of which must be maintained at cryogenic temperatures to prevent transitioning to the gas phase. During launch, these gases are rapidly expelled from their storage chambers in the presence of a spark, igniting the mixture and propelling the rocket forward. The combustion of the fuel results in water vapor.

The liquid forms of hydrogen and oxygen are preferred in rocketry due to their enhanced energy density compared to their gaseous states. Another advantage is that liquid-propelled ballistic missiles can have their engines throttled, shut down, or restarted as needed. However, storing such missiles is challenging, as the fuel necessitates continuous refrigeration for launch readiness.

Another type of liquid propellant is hypergolic propellants, which ignite upon contact without requiring an ignition source. This feature is beneficial for frequent starts and restarts in space maneuvering applications. The most popular version employs monomethylhydrazine (MMH) as fuel and nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) as the oxidizer.

Contemporary ballistic missiles tend to use solid fuels due to their ease of storage and maintenance. For instance, the Space Shuttle employs two reusable solid boosters, each containing 1.1 million pounds (453,600 kg) of propellant. The fuel consists of aluminum powder (16 percent), iron powder (0.07 percent) as a catalyst, and ammonium perchlorate (70 percent) as an oxidizer.

Most ballistic missiles are engineered to reach their targets in approximately 15 to 30 minutes, even if the destination is on the opposite side of the globe. Given their critical role in national security, these missiles are among the most meticulously crafted machines in existence.